Indus Valley Civilization: Legacy and Mystery of the Ancient World
Are you up for a million-dollar race?
MK Stalin, the chief minister of southern India's Tamil Nadu state, recently announced a $1 million prize for anyone who can crack the script of the Indus Valley Civilization. This challenge highlights one of history’s greatest mysteries - the undeciphered symbols of a civilization that thrived over 4,000 years ago. The Harappan people built sophisticated cities and engaged in long-distance trade, yet their written language remains an enigma. While scholars race to unlock its secrets, let’s have a look at why this civilization holds such interest.
Mohenjo-Daro, present day Pakistan. Photo by: Noman Bukhari
The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that flourished in the northwestern region of South Asia between approximately 3300 BCE and 1300 BCE.
This civilization was contemporary with those of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China, though it encompassed a much larger territory, including present-day Pakistan, northwest India, and northeast Afghanistan.
It is named after the Indus Valley, as the earliest identified settlements flourished alongside the valley’s rivers. The two most famous cities of this civilization are Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro; thus, it is often referred to as the Harappan Civilization, as Harappa was the first excavated city.
Origins and Discovery
In 1829, Charles Masson, a passionate explorer and archaeologist, made the first recorded discovery of this civilization - the Harappa metropolis in the Punjab region - while on a mission as a soldier in the East India Company’s army.
Several years later, the site was noticed by another company contractor, Alexander Burnes, who described the bricks that could be seen in the city’s structures. Unfortunately, following the British annexation of the Punjab region, Harappa was heavily raided for its bricks, which were used for railway construction. In fact, the entire railway line between Multan and Lahore was built using bricks from Harappa.
Fortunately, after the establishment of the Crown rule in India and the dissolution of the East India Company, archaeology in the region gained more prominence - thanks in large part to the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904. This law aimed to control the traffic of antiquities, prevent over-excavation, and protect sites of archaeological and historical significance.
The increasing focus on archaeology led to the discovery of other invaluable settlements belonging to this civilization, most notably Mohenjo-Daro, the other great city of the Indus Valley Civilization.
The Crown Jewels of the Indus Valley Civilization
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are the two largest and most well-known settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Harappa, present day Pakistan.
Copyright: By Muhammad Bin Naveed - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35609614
Harappa is located in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, on the left bank of the now-dry Ravi River. It serves as the type-site of the civilization. Initial excavations, conducted in 1921, revealed that its layout closely resembles that of Mohenjo-Daro - with a fortified citadel built on a raised area in the west, multiple ventilated granary buildings surrounding a podium, circular brick floors used for pounding grain, and residential structures to the east. It is estimated that Harappa had around 24,000 inhabitants.
Mohenjo-Daro (meaning "Mound of the Dead"), considered one of the earliest major cities, is located in Pakistan’s Larkana District, on the west bank of the lower Indus River.
At its peak, the city likely had a population of around 40,000 people and was first excavated in the 1920s.
Built in the 26th century BCE, Mohenjo-Daro was arguably one of the most advanced cities of its time. Its urban layout suggests a well-established order, particularly in the positioning of public buildings. Like Harappa, the city was divided into two main sections: the Citadel, a raised mud-brick mound approximately 12 meters high, which housed public baths, a large residential complex that accommodated around 5,000 people, and two large assembly halls; and the Lower Town, where most of the population lived.
Near the citadel, a marketplace with a large public well was discovered. Many households had their own wells, inner courtyards, and pottery used for heating and possibly cooking. Some homes even had private baths, presumably indicating higher social status. Water waste was drained into a separate system that lined the streets, suggesting an advanced sanitation infrastructure.
Mohenjo-Daro, a large well is pictured to the left.
Copyright: By Usman.pg - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35428421
Like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro contained granary buildings, with a system designed to transport carts of grain directly into them. Another striking feature of the city is the Great Bath, a large, waterproofed brick pool that may have been used for ritual bathing.
Interestingly, unlike other contemporary civilizations, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were not heavily fortified. Though they had guard towers, their city walls were only partially enclosing. However, Mohenjo-Daro was fortified against flooding with large platforms.
The well at Dholavira, state of Gujarat, India.
Copyright: By Prof Ranga Sai - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=126585713
Archaeologists also uncovered furnaces, which were likely used for metalworking - consistent with the discovery of copper tools, gold and copper jewelry, and bronze and copper figurines. Among the most notable finds are copper tablets inscribed with the Indus script and intricate iconography.
Other significant artifacts include stone tools, terracotta pottery, children’s toys, and numerous figurines.
One particularly intriguing observation is the prevalence of female figurines. While Mother Goddess worship was common in ancient civilizations, scholars continue to debate whether these figurines represent a deity, were offerings, or were modeled on real individuals for use in healing rituals.
Another fascinating discovery is an ivory ruler found at Mohenjo-Daro, dated to around 1500 BCE. It is divided into units of 34 millimeters, showcasing the civilization’s advanced knowledge of measurement. Numerous rulers were found in other excavated sites, as well.
One of the city’s most famous artifacts is the "Priest-King" statue, found in a house distinguished by ornamental brickwork and a large niche. The male figure has a neatly trimmed beard, pierced ears, a headdress, an armband, and a cloak with circular motifs. Though dubbed the "Priest-King," its identity remains uncertain, as there is no definitive evidence of a ruling class or priesthood in this civilization.
The Priest-King, Mohenjo-Daro
Copyright: By Mamoon Mengal - world66.com, CC BY-SA 1.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1257115
Trade Routes to Other Civilizations
The Indus Valley Civilization had an extensive trade network spanning Persia, Afghanistan, India, Mesopotamia, and beyond. According to archaeologist Dennys Frenez, Indus-related artifacts have been found in all of those regions:
“Indus-type and Indus-related artifacts were found over a large and differentiated ecumene, encompassing Central Asia, the Iranian Plateau, Mesopotamia and the northern Levant, the Persian Gulf, and the Oman Peninsula. The discovery of Indus trade tools (seals, weights, and containers) across the entire Middle Asia, complemented by information from Mesopotamian cuneiform texts, shows that entrepreneurs from the Indus Valley regularly ventured into these regions to transact with the local socioeconomic and political entities. However, Indus artifacts were also exchanged beyond this core region, eventually reaching as far [as] the Nile River valley, Anatolia, and the Caucasus. On the contrary, only a handful of exotic trade tools and commodities have been found at sites in the Greater Indus Valley. The success of Indus trade in Central and Western Asia did not only rely on the dynamic entrepreneurialism of Indus merchants and the exotic commodities they offered. Specific products were proactively designed and manufactured in the Indus Valley to fulfill the particular needs of foreign markets, and Indus craftspeople moved beyond their native cultural sphere adapting their distinctive productions to the taste of foreign elites or reworking indigenous models. The adoption of specific seals and iconographies to regulate external trade activities suggests a conscious attempt at implementing a coordinated supraregional marketing strategy (…).”
Frenez, Dennys (2023). "Indus Valley: Early Commercial Connections with Central and Western Asia". Asian History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.595. ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7.
Spiritual Beliefs in the Indus Valley Civilization
Unlike other Bronze Age civilizations, the religious beliefs of the Indus Valley population remain a mystery. Early scholars suggested the presence of a male and female deity, but modern experts dismiss these claims due to a lack of substantial evidence.
One of the most famous religious artifacts is the Pashupati Seal, discovered in Mohenjo-Daro. It depicts a central figure - either horned or wearing a headdress - sitting in a Yogi-like lotus position, surrounded by wild animals (elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, and buffalo). Some early scholars linked it to Hindu deity Shiva, but modern scholars remain cautious about such interpretations.
The Pashupati Seal
Copyright: By unknown Indus Valley Civilization sealmaker from Mohenjodaro archaeological site - http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/protoshiva/protoshiva.jpg, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=9325528
Another seal discovered in Mohenjo-Daro appears to depict a religious ritual, though its exact meaning remains speculative. In the upper right section of the seal, a figure - possibly a deity - with large horns and bangles on both arms is shown standing in a tree. In front of this figure, a kneeling individual, also depicted with horns and possibly adorned with plumes in a headdress, is believed to represent a worshipper or priest. To the side, what seems to be a human head with hair tied in a bun rests on a stool. Behind this scene, a large horned animal, most commonly identified as a ram and possibly bearing a human head, completes the composition.
Stamp seals and impressions, some with Indus script, British Museum
Copyright: By World Imaging - Self-photographed, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=268919
Many scholars speculate about a continuity between Indus Valley religious practices and Hinduism, citing the presence of swastika symbols in the artifacts. However, the swastika is a sacred symbol in multiple religions, including Jainism and Buddhism, making it an insufficient basis for a direct link between the Indus Valley Civilization and Hinduism.
Legacy and Decline
As evidenced by archaeological excavations, the Indus Valley Civilization was incredibly advanced, featuring elaborate urban planning, sophisticated buildings, well-developed water supply and drainage systems, and remarkable techniques in metallurgy and handicrafts. However, this civilization remains a mystery today - nearly a thousand sites have yet to be excavated, and, most importantly, the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered. Written language is one of the richest sources of cultural insight, and as long as this script remains a puzzle, fully understanding the most significant aspects of this extraordinary society is impossible. With the substantial incentive recently proposed by the Indian government, there is hope for a breakthrough.
Despite its advancements and sophistication, the Indus Valley Civilization, like many others, eventually collapsed. Around 1900 BCE, it began to decline as people dispersed and migrated to other regions, most notably eastward to the Himalayan foothills. There, they transitioned from large urban centers to smaller farming villages. By 1700 BCE, most cities were nearly abandoned.
Several theories attempt to explain this collapse. One possibility is that trade with Mesopotamia, a crucial economic connection, was severely disrupted due to political struggles in the region. Some historians suggest that a large-scale war led to the decline - an idea supported by the Rig Veda, a poem dating to around 1500 BCE, which describes an invasion of Indus cities from the north. However, no archaeological evidence has been found to support this theory.
Many scholars believe that environmental changes played a significant role in the civilization’s decline, particularly shifts in river patterns. The Indus Valley settlements were heavily dependent on riverbanks, and disruptions to their flow would have had a profound impact. Evidence suggests that while some areas experienced catastrophic flooding, others suffered from severe droughts around the time of the civilization’s decline - both of which would have drastically affected agriculture and daily life.
Despite its decline, the civilization’s legacy endures through its urban planning, metallurgy, and undeciphered script. Until we unlock the secrets of the Indus script, much of this civilization’s story will remain an enigma - one that scholars are racing to unravel.
Ten Indus characters from the northern gate of Dholavira, state of Gujarat, India
Copyright: By Siyajkak - siyajkak drew this picture by pencil and recopy, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1957153