*One of the 131 tombs in Mada’in Salih*
*Copyright: Ali Lajami -* *https://www.flickr.com/photos/199903594@N07/53530613033/, CC0,* *https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=145367426*

Nestled in the vast deserts of Saudi Arabia, Mada’in Salih stands as a testament to the ancient Nabatean civilization, carved magnificently into rose-red cliffs. Once a vibrant oasis and bustling center of trade, this historic site, also known as Al-Hijr or Hegra, played a crucial role along the ancient caravan routes. Its sandstone tombs and facades reveal the artistry and architectural prowess of the Nabateans, who flourished here long before the city fell into decline.

Mada’in Saleh’s history is closely intertwined with the rise and fall of the Nabatean Kingdom, which controlled valuable trade networks connecting Arabia to distant lands. As the Nabateans lost power, the city’s importance diminished, eventually leading to its abandonment. Over the centuries, local lore emerged, painting the site as a place of caution and respect. According to accounts in the Quran, the Thamud people, met a divine punishment for their transgressions here, lending a sense of reverence to the area that continues to this day. Even now, some locals prefer to avoid the ruins, considering them a solemn reminder of divine retribution.

*Jabal al-Banat, Hegra (Mada’in Salih)*
*Copyright: saudipedia.com*

Located in the Al-'Ula region of Saudi Arabia’s Hejaz, Mada’in Salih has a rich history that spans centuries. While most of its remarkable remains date back to the Nabataean Kingdom in the 1st century AD, traces of earlier civilizations and even a later Roman presence reveal its deep historical roots.

The oldest signs of human activity are petroglyphs and rock art, dating from the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD. Unfortunately, these early remnants remain relatively understudied, leaving much of the site’s ancient past a mystery. Archaeologists have identified inscriptions in Lihyanite script near Athleb Mountain, along with cave art in the surrounding sandstone formations. These inscriptions, from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, suggest that early settlers were attracted to the area’s fertile soil and ample fresh water, transforming it into a vital trading hub for goods from distant regions.

The true fame of Mada’in Saleh, however, comes from its Nabataean period. During the 1st century AD, Nabataean King Al-Harith IV claimed the city, making it his kingdom's secondary capital after Petra (in present-day Jordan). Under his rule, Mada’in Saleh flourished, with Nabataean architects carving grandiose structures directly into the rose-colored rock. These monumental facades, adorned with Nabataean inscriptions, reflect the artistry and skill of the civilization. Nabataean settlers also harnessed oasis agriculture, digging wells and rainwater tanks, which allowed for the development of a thriving urban center.

Ideally positioned along a key trade route, Mada’in Saleh connected with the Red Sea port of Egra Kome, allowing it to prosper as a bustling trade hub for the transport of frankincense, myrrh, and spices. This fusion of cultural, architectural, and economic significance has earned Mada’in Saleh a distinguished place in the history of the ancient world, standing today as a testament to the Nabataean legacy across the Arabian Peninsula.

In 106 AD, the Nabataean Kingdom fell under the control of the Roman Empire, and the region of Hejaz - including Hegra - became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Trade routes shifted from overland paths running north–south through the Arabian Peninsula to maritime routes via the Red Sea, leading to Hegra’s gradual decline as a commercial center and its eventual abandonment. Archaeological evidence suggests that, as desertification intensified, the city lost its urban functions by late antiquity.

*Hegra (Mada’in Salih): Roman inscription dedicated to Emperor Marcus Aurelius*
*Copyright: By* *archive.aramcoworld.com* - *https://vici.org/image.php?id=14327, CC0,* *https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=118060527*

In the 1960s and 70s, researchers uncovered signs of Roman military presence at Mada'in Salih, indicating that Emperor Trajan’s legions had extended the province of Arabia Petraea into northeastern Arabia. However, the centuries between the decline of Rome and the emergence of Islam remain largely undocumented. Travelers and pilgrims occasionally mentioned Hegra as a waypoint on the journey to Mecca, though there is minimal record of permanent settlement during this period.

Western Arabia, including Hegra, was annexed by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Early Ottoman records of the Damascus-Mecca Hajj route omit any mention of Mada’in Salih until 1672, when the Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi wrote about passing through "Abyar Salih," a site with ruins of seven cities. Later, the traveler Murtada ibn 'Alawan noted it as "al-Mada’in" on the Hajj route, and during the 18th century, a well and fort were constructed there by order of the governor of Damascus to serve passing pilgrims.

*The Ottoman Hajj Fort at Mada'in Salih, 1907*
By A. Jaussen and R. Savignac (photographers) - Scanned copies from The Medieval and Ottoman Hajj Route in Jordan; an Archaeological and Historical Study, page 131Original source: Ecole Biblique, Public Domain, *https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=49534257*

Mada’in Salih Today

At the heart of Mada’in Salih lies “Jabal Ithlib”, a site thought to have once been sacred to the Nabataean god Dushara. Located to the northeast of the main site, visitors can walk through a narrow 40-meter corridor flanked by high rock walls, which leads to the Diwan, a chamber resembling a traditional Muslim council hall or court. Nearby, small carved sanctuaries and inscriptions can be seen on the rock walls, adding a spiritual dimension to the area.

The remains of the ancient residential district stretch across a plain, away from the cliffs and outcrops. The Nabataeans built their homes and walls from sun-dried mudbrick, but time has left only sparse remnants of this ancient neighborhood. The city’s water needs were met by approximately 130 wells, located in the site’s western and northwestern areas where groundwater was accessible at about 20 meters below the surface. With diameters ranging from 4 to 7 meters, many wells were chiseled directly into rock, while those in looser soil were fortified with sandstone.

*Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ)*
***Copyright:*** *© UNESCO*
***Source:*** *Véronique Dauge*

Mada’in Salih’s necropolis, or burial sites, include four main clusters containing 131 monumental rock-carved tombs, spread over 13.4 square kilometers. In addition, there are roughly 2,000 simpler graves. The tomb façades reflect the social hierarchy of the Nabataeans, with larger, ornate tombs indicating wealth or prominence. Many of these tombs bear inscriptions detailing the names and roles of the interred, some even referencing military ranks, which has led archaeologists to suggest that Mada’in Salih may have served as a Nabataean military outpost, securing trade routes that linked the city to surrounding regions.

The Nabataean Kingdom was a true crossroads of commerce and culture. This blend is apparent in the stylistic variety of the tomb façades, which incorporate motifs from Assyria, Phoenicia and Egypt, all fused with Nabataean artistry. When the territory came under Roman control, elements of Roman design and inscriptions in Latin were added to the tombs. In contrast to their elaborate exteriors, the interiors of the rock-hewn tombs remain starkly unadorned.

A City Shrouded in Legend

Locals regard Mada’in Salih as a “cursed city,” drawing on its appearance in the Quran as “al-Hijr”, the ancient settlement of the Thamud people. According to Islamic tradition, the Thamud lived in grand homes carved into the mountains but had succumbed to idol worship and oppression. The prophet Salih, for whom the site is named, called on them to abandon their ways. As a divine test, Salih brought forth a pregnant camel from the mountain, symbolizing his mission. However, most Thamudis ignored his call and killed the sacred camel, while its calf fled back into the mountains. After ignoring Salih’s warning, the non-believers were struck down by a catastrophic earthquake and lightning. Local legend holds that the ghost of the camel still haunts Mada’in Salih as a reminder of divine retribution.

Today, Mada’in Salih stands as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, safeguarded by the Saudi government, which continues to preserve its rich history and cultural heritage.

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