The First Laws of Civilization: Mesopotamia’s Legal Codes
Excavations at Nippur, Iraq, 1893.
By John Henry Haynes - archive.archaeology.org, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=55336790
In the heart of ancient Mesopotamia, thousands of years before modern courts or constitutions, a bold new vision for society was taking shape. Rulers across this "Cradle of Civilization" sought ways to organize society and manage the burgeoning complexities of early cities. Long before the Greek philosophers or Roman legions, Mesopotamian kings were etching laws into stone—setting down codes to rule over life and death, wealth and poverty, justice and vengeance.
From Urukagina’s reforms in Lagash, seeking to end the abuses of the powerful, to Hammurabi’s famous dictum of “an eye for an eye,” these early laws reveal an extraordinary legacy: the world’s first attempts at structured justice. They were not just rules but promises of order.
In this article, we’ll explore Mesopotamia’s groundbreaking legal codes, from the earliest reforms of Urukagina (c. 24th century BCE), to the Code of Ur-Nammu, the Code of Lipit-Ishtar, the Laws of Eshnunna, and finally, the monumental Code of Hammurabi. Together, these texts laid the foundation for legal thought, and in many ways, the civilization we know today.
The reforms of King Urukagina (2350 BC)
Reform text of Urukagina, king of Lagash. From Girsu, Iraq. 24th century BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul
By Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg) - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=99256261
Urukagina, a Sumerian king of Lagash and Girsu in ancient Mesopotamia, was the final ruler of Lagash’s First Dynasty. Ascending the throne after the downfall of his corrupt predecessor, Lugalanda, Urukagina declared himself divinely appointed. He is renowned for his sweeping reforms—known as the Code of Urukagina—which some consider to be one of the earliest known legal codes, though scholars debate whether it was a set of laws or simply a record of reforms.
Urukagina’s reforms sought to address the social injustices of his time. He exempted widows and orphans from taxes, mandated that the city cover funeral expenses (including ritual offerings for the dead), and decreed that wealthy individuals must use silver when buying goods from the poor, without coercing sales. These measures curtailed the influence of priests and landowners, and imposed restrictions on usury and unfair practices. As he wrote, “The widow and the orphan were no longer at the mercy of the powerful man”.
Some of his laws addressed social customs, with harsh penalties for those who violated them. For example, polyandry was prohibited, with violators punished by stoning. Another law specified that if a woman made certain remarks to a man (the exact nature of these remarks remains unknown, as the word on the stone tablet is partially damaged)), she would have her mouth crushed with burnt bricks. Despite these restrictions and efforts, Urukagina’s reign marked a period of influence for women of the elite. He significantly expanded the royal "Household of Women"—renaming it the "Household of the goddess Bau"—from 50 to 1,500 members and appointed his wife, Shasha (or Shagshag), as its overseer. In his second year, Shasha presided over the grand funeral of Baranamtarra, the influential queen of his predecessor, cementing the prominence of royal women during his rule.
The Code of Ur-Nammu (c. 2112-2095 BCE)
The first known version of the code in its current location
By Istanbul Archaeology Museums - Own work, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34550484
In ancient Sumeria, around 2100 BCE, a set of laws was etched into stone by King Ur-Nammu, one of history’s earliest lawgivers. This code is remarkable for its attempt at justice rather than mere retribution. It introduced the principle of compensatory fines instead of violent punishment for certain offenses – a really new approach for this era. For instance, if a man knocked out another’s tooth, he would pay a fine in silver rather than suffer physical harm in return.
The first tablet containing the Code of Ur-Nammu was initially discovered in Nippur (in present-day Iraq), with two additional tablets later found in Ur. One of these tablets is now housed in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum, while the other resides in the Iraq Museum in Baghdad.
Although Urukagina’s code predates it, many scholars regard the Code of Ur-Nammu as the earliest example of a structured written legal code due to its organized format and comprehensive content. Some of the discernible laws include:
If a man commits a murder, that man must be killed.
If a man commits a robbery, he will be killed.
If a man commits a kidnapping, he is to be imprisoned and pay 15 shekels of silver.
If a slave marries a slave, and that slave is set free, he does not leave the household.
If a slave marries a native [i.e. free] person, he/she is to hand the firstborn son over to his owner.
If a man violates the right of another and deflowers the virgin wife of a young man, they shall kill that male.
If the wife of a man followed after another man and he slept with her, they shall slay that woman, but that male shall be set free.
If a man proceeded by force, and deflowered the virgin female slave of another man, that man must pay five shekels of silver.
If a man divorces his first-time wife, he shall pay (her) one mina of silver.
If it is a (former) widow whom he divorces, he shall pay (her) half a mina of silver.
If the man had slept with the widow without there having been any marriage contract, he need not pay any silver.
If a man is accused of sorcery [translation disputed], he must undergo ordeal by water; if he is proven innocent, his accuser must pay 3 shekels.
If a man accused the wife of a man of adultery, and the river ordeal proved her innocent, then the man who had accused her must pay one-third of a mina of silver.
If a prospective son-in-law enters the house of his prospective father-in-law, but his father-in-law later gives his daughter to another man, the father-in-law shall return to the rejected son-in-law twofold the amount of bridal presents he had brought.
If [text destroyed], he shall weigh and deliver to him 2 shekels of silver.
If a slave escapes from the city limits, and someone returns him, the owner shall pay two shekels to the one who returned him.
If a man knocks out the eye of another man, he shall weigh out half a mina of silver.
If a man has cut off another man's foot, he is to pay ten shekels.
If a man, in the course of a scuffle, smashed the limb of another man with a club, he shall pay one mina of silver.
If someone severed the nose of another man with a copper knife, he must pay two-thirds of a mina of silver.
If a man knocks out a tooth of another man, he shall pay two shekels of silver.
[text destroyed] If he does not have a slave, he is to pay 10 shekels of silver. If he does not have silver, he is to give another thing that belongs to him.
If a man's slave-woman, comparing herself to her mistress, speaks insolently to her, her mouth shall be scoured with 1 quart of salt.
If a slave woman strikes someone acting with the authority of her mistress, [text destroyed]
If a man appeared as a witness, and was shown to be a perjurer, he must pay fifteen shekels of silver.
If a man appears as a witness, but withdraws his oath, he must make payment, to the extent of the value in litigation of the case.
If a man stealthily cultivates the field of another man and he raises a complaint, this is however to be rejected, and this man will lose his expenses.
If a man flooded the field of a man with water, he shall measure out three kur of barley per iku of field.
If a man had let an arable field to a(nother) man for cultivation, but he did not cultivate it, turning it into wasteland, he shall measure out three kur of barley per iku of field.
The Code of Lipit-Ishtar (c. 1930 BCE)
Prologue to the Code of Lipit-Ishtar (housed in the Louvre [AO 5473])
By Zunkir - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=93923031
Nearly a century later, the Sumerian king Lipit-Ishtar of Isin followed in Ur-Nammu’s footsteps by enacting a code of laws that emphasized fairness in a new, growing city-state.
Lipit-Ishtar, the fifth king of the Dynasty of Isin, rose to power following the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur. His father, Ishme-Dagan, is recognized for revitalizing the ancient Sumerian city of Nippur, located in what is now Iraq. The Dynasty of Isin governed the city of Isin and wielded significant influence across the cities of Lower Mesopotamia.
Known for restoring peace and establishing a robust legal system, Lipit-Ishtar’s code was uncovered in Nippur. It addresses various aspects of daily life, from inheritance and family matters to personal injury. Structurally, it resembles the earlier Code of Ur-Nammu, with a prologue that justifies its authority, a main section detailing civil and criminal laws, and a concluding epilogue.
The prologue asserts the code’s legitimacy by invoking the gods An and Enlil, declaring that they appointed Lipit-Ishtar as "the country’s prince" to "establish justice in the land, eradicate the cry for justice [...] [and] forcefully restrain crime and violence," ensuring the well-being of Sumer and Akkad. The prologue also mentions that Lipit-Ishtar had recently liberated slaves from Nippur, Ur, and Isin and enumerates the cities under his rule.
Some of the translated laws include:
If a man gave bare ground to another man to set out as an orchard and the latter did not complete setting out that bare ground as an orchard, he shall give to the man who set out the orchard the bare ground which he neglected as part of his share.
If a man entered the orchard of another man and was seized there for stealing, he shall pay ten shekels of silver.
If a man cut down a tree in the garden of another man, he shall pay one-half mina of silver.
If adjacent to the house of a man the bare ground of another man has been neglected and the owner of the house has said to the owner of the bare ground, "Because your ground has been neglected someone may break into my house: strengthen your house," and this agreement has been confirmed by him, the owner of the bare ground shall restore to the owner of the house any of his property that is lost.
If a slave-girl or slave of a man has fled into the heart of the city and it has been confirmed that he (or she) dwelt in the house of (another) man for one month, he shall give slave for slave.
If he has no slave, he shall pay fifteen shekels of silver.
If a man's slave has compensated his slave-ship to his master and it is confirmed (that he has compensated) his master two-fold, that slave shall be freed.
If a miqtum [servant] is the grant of a king, he shall not be taken away.
If a miqtum went to a man of his own free will, that man shall not hold him; he (the miqtum) may go where he desires.
If a man without authorization bound another man to a matter of which he (the latter) had no knowledge, that man is not affirmed (i.e., legally obligated); he (the first man) shall bear the penalty in regard to the matter to which he had bound him.
If the master of an estate or the mistress of an estate has defaulted on the tax of an estate and a stranger has borne it, for three years he (the owner) may not be evicted. Afterwards, the man who bore the tax of the estate shall possess that estate and the former owner of the estate shall not raise any claim.
If the father is living, his daughter whether she be a high priestess, a priestess, or a hierodule shall dwell in his house like an heir.
If the second wife whom he had married bore him children, the dowry which she brought from her father's house belongs to her children but the children of his first wife and the children of his second wife shall divide equally the property of their father.
If a man married his wife and she bore him children and those children are living, and a slave also bore children for her master, but the father granted freedom to the slave and her children, the children of the slave shall not divide the estate with the children of their former master.
If a man's wife has not borne him children but a harlot from the public square has borne him children, he shall provide grain, oil and clothing for that harlot. The children which the harlot has borne him shall be his heirs, and as long as his wife lives the harlot shall not live in the house with the wife.
If a son-in-law has entered the house of his (prospective) father-in-law and afterwards they made him go out (of the house) and gave his wife to his companion, they shall present to him the betrothal gifts which he brought, and that wife may not marry his companion.
If a man rented an ox and injured the flesh at the nose ring, he shall pay one-third of its price.
If a man rented an ox and damaged its eye, he shall pay one-half its price.
If a man rented an ox and broke its horn, he shall pay one-fourth its price.
If a man rented an ox and damaged its tail, he shall pay one-fourth its price.
The Laws of Eshnunna (c. 1770 BCE)
Sumerian male worshiper, in alabaster with shell eyes. Eshunna (modern-day Tell Asmar, Iraq)
By Rosemaniakos from Bejing (hometown) - Flickr, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=943085
Unearthed in fragments near modern-day Baghdad, the Laws of Eshnunna reveal the legal intricacies of a thriving trade center around 1770 BCE. Written in Akkadian, the laws outline a structured society with clear distinctions among social classes—from free citizens to slaves—each with specific rights and obligations. Reflecting the deep influence of both Babylonian and Sumerian traditions, the code exemplifies the rich cultural tapestry of ancient Mesopotamia.
Unlike earlier Mesopotamian codes, the Laws of Eshnunna focus on fines and compensation rather than harsh physical punishments or death sentences. They address a wide range of legal issues, including homicide, assault, theft, property disputes, marriage, divorce, slavery, debt, and contracts. The laws also highlight a layered social hierarchy with different legal standings: free individuals (awilum), dependents (muškenum), and slaves (wardum and amtum), along with other groups like ubarum, apþarum, and mudum.
Named after the city of Eshnunna rather than the king who commissioned it - whose name remains uncertain due to damage on the tablets - the Laws of Eshnunna illustrate a society advancing toward a more nuanced balance of individual and collective rights. This code stands as a testament to the evolution of legal thought in ancient Mesopotamia.
The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BCE)
The Code of Hammurabi, The Louvre, Paris, France, originally Sippar, Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), found at Susa, Iran
By Mbzt - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16931676
Arguably the most famous of the Mesopotamian codes, Hammurabi’s stone monolith, discovered in Susa, Iran, has become a lasting symbol of ancient law. Created around 1754 BCE, this monumental work contains 282 laws that governed nearly every aspect of Babylonian life, including family relations, professional contracts, and administrative issues. The code reflects Hammurabi’s structured approach to justice, applying distinct standards for Babylonian society's three classes: the propertied, freedmen, and slaves.
Hammurabi’s principle of "an eye for an eye" has resonated through centuries, embodying his belief in balanced justice where punishment should match the offense. Unlike the more lenient Laws of Eshnunna, which favored fines and compensation, Hammurabi’s Code reinstated severe physical punishments for certain offenses, reinforcing a harsher approach to justice in Babylonian society.
However, this code was more than a set of rules; it also showcased Hammurabi’s role as a "shepherd-king" who protected his people and strengthened social order. His influence on legal tradition extended well beyond his time, shaping the foundations of law itself.
The excavation of the Susa acropolis in 1897–1898, four years before the Code was found at the site
By Unknown photographer - ARCH AO 2267, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=79795434
As the sixth king of the Babylonian dynasty, which ruled over central Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) from around 1894 to 1595 BCE, Hammurabi brought both strength and wisdom to his reign. His lineage traced back to the Amorites, a semi-nomadic group from western Syria, and his name uniquely combined Amorite and Akkadian elements: "Hammu" meaning "family" in Amorite, and "rapi," meaning "great" in Akkadian, the common language of Babylon.
The code’s 282 edicts follow an "if-then" formula: if an individual commits a specific action, then a prescribed consequence follows. For example, if someone stole an ox, he would have to repay thirty times its value. Medical malpractice penalties are similarly explicit; a doctor who caused the death of a wealthy patient would lose his hands, while a financial penalty sufficed if the victim was a slave.
Some of the translated laws include:
If any one ensnare another, putting a ban upon him, but he can not prove it, then he that ensnared him shall be put to death.
If any one bring an accusation against a man, and the accused go to the river and leap into the river, if he sink in the river his accuser shall take possession of his house. But if the river prove that the accused is not guilty, and he escape unhurt, then he who had brought the accusation shall be put to death, while he who leaped into the river shall take possession of the house that had belonged to his accuser.
If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he has charged, he shall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death.
If he satisfies the elders to impose a fine of grain or money, he shall receive the fine that the action produces.
If a judge tries a case, reach a decision, and present his judgment in writing; if later error shall appear in his decision, and it be through his own fault, then he shall pay twelve times the fine set by him in the case, and he shall be publicly removed from the judge's bench, and never again shall he sit there to render judgement.
If any one steal the property of a temple or of the court, he shall be put to death, and also the one who receives the stolen thing from him shall be put to death.
If any one buy from the son or the slave of another man, without witnesses or a contract, silver or gold, a male or female slave, an ox or a sheep, an ass or anything, or if he takes it in charge, he is considered a thief and shall be put to death.
If any one steal cattle or sheep, or an ass, or a pig or a goat, if it belongs to a god or to the court, the thief shall pay thirtyfold therefor; if they belonged to a freed man of the king he shall pay tenfold; if the thief has nothing with which to pay he shall be put to death.
If any one lose an article, and find it in the possession of another: if the person in whose possession the thing is found say "A merchant sold it to me, I paid for it before witnesses," and if the owner of the thing say, "I will bring witnesses who know my property," then shall the purchaser bring the merchant who sold it to him, and the witnesses before whom he bought it, and the owner shall bring witnesses who can identify his property. The judge shall examine their testimony--both of the witnesses before whom the price was paid, and of the witnesses who identify the lost article on oath. The merchant is then proved to be a thief and shall be put to death. The owner of the lost article receives his property, and he who bought it receives the money he paid from the estate of the merchant.
If the purchaser does not bring the merchant and the witnesses before whom he bought the article, but its owner brings witnesses who identify it, then the buyer is the thief and shall be put to death, and the owner receives the lost article.
If the owner does not bring witnesses to identify the lost article, he is an evil doer, he has traduced and shall be put to death.
If the witnesses be not at hand, then shall the judge set a limit, at the expiration of six months. If his witnesses have not appeared within the six months, he is an evil-doer and shall bear the fine of the pending case.
If any one steal the minor son of another, he shall be put to death.
If any one take a male or female slave of the court, or a male or female slave of a freed man, outside the city gates, he shall be put to death.
If any one receive into his house a runaway male or female slave of the court, or of a freedman, and does not bring it out at the public proclamation of the major domus, the master of the house shall be put to death.
If any one find runaway male or female slaves in the open country and bring them to their masters, the master of the slaves shall pay him two shekels of silver.
If the slave will not give the name of the master, the finder shall bring him to the palace; a further investigation must follow, and the slave shall be returned to his master.
If he holds the slaves in his house, and they are caught there, he shall be put to death.
If the slave that he caught run away from him, then shall he swear to the owners of the slave, and he is free of all blame.
If any one break a hole into a house (break in to steal), he shall be put to death before that hole and be buried.
If any one is committing a robbery and is caught, then he shall be put to death.
Although earlier laws, such as the Codes of Lipit-Ishtar and Ur-Nammu, predate Hammurabi’s by centuries, Hammurabi’s code remains the most renowned. His reputation as a visionary lawmaker has endured, cementing his legacy as one of Mesopotamia’s most influential rulers and as a symbol of ancient legal thought.